By 1960, the age of the battleship was clearly over. Not a single one remained in active service anywhere in the world, although some of the treaty battleships still lingered on in reserve fleets. But while they were clearly outdated in fleet combat, the presence of such large, fast, and relatively young hulls drew interest for a variety of purposes.

Iowa as a Commando Ship (from Shipbucket)

One particular area of interest was an amphibious conversion. With the end of WWII and the advent of the atomic bomb, amphibious warfare was undergoing major changes, and the idea of turning a battleship into a helicopter carrier held some appeal. An early plan for the North Carolina class foundered when it was found to be more expensive and less efficient than a new-build ship, but plans for the Iowas, under the name "commando ship", lasted much longer. The basic idea was to disperse the amphibious force across more ships, to reduce vulnerability to nuclear attack, and to get the 16" guns back to sea to provide fire support, including the Mk 23 nuclear shell. Read more...

The past year has been reasonably productive. We've begun colonization of Gliese 892, with the first load of infrastructure delivered and a colony ship on the way. To support this, four AKXs have been built, and 6 more ordered. We've also made contact with the race that lives in Gliese 438, who call themselves the Zophris Association. At the moment, they've agreed to our requests to stop scouting Sol. Beyond that, the Martian population is over 10 million, and we've closed it to new immigrants for the time being. We've also got a gap in our factory's schedule, and need to figure out what to do with it.

Database is here.

In the late 1930s, the US was beginning to prepare for war. New submarines were being built, the first of the long-range "fleet boats" that would eventually starve Japan. One of these was Squalus, laid down at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard on the Maine-New Hampshire border in October 1937 and commissioned 17 months later. She began to work up, making 18 dives in the waters off New England. May 23rd would see her 19th, a crash-dive while making speed on the surface to check her readiness for a major inspection coming in June.

Squalus fitting out

Like all submarines of her era, Squalus was propelled on the surface by diesel engines, and they needed air to run. This entered the sub through the main induction valve, which would hydraulically slide closed just before the submarine dived. Obviously, an induction valve failure would be a very serious issue, and the crew took precautions. The so-called Christmas Tree, which showed the status of every valve on the boat, was watched closely, and as a backup, a blast of high-pressure air was released inside the boat, producing a spike on the ship's barometer. The dive was perfect, at least until they reached 50', only 62 seconds after starting the procedure. Then, crewmen began to feel their ears pop, and a report reached the control room that the engine rooms were flooding. Read more...

Whalers are not the only ships that go to harvest the bounty of the seas. Man has pursued fish for millennia, and continues to do so today using a variety of different methods. Fishing is a wide subject, covering everything from an angler with a rod on a streambank to fleets far out at sea using nets and the latest technology to catch fish for sale. It's this aspect I'll focus on, looking solely at commercial oceanic fishing.

Fishermen prepare longlines for salmon

There are two main ways to fish: you can either get them to bite on a hook, or catch them in a net. The latter is by far the most common, although longline fishing is an important part of the fishing fleet. This involves using a line with multiple baited hooks, as many as 2,500 on a 75-mile long line in some fisheries. This method produces the best fish quality, although the work of baiting the hooks means that it is reserved for either high-value fish like tuna or for species like halibut that live on rocky bottoms where nets don't work. Longlining is also generally considered to be more environmentally friendly than most nets, although bycatch, where non-targeted species are caught, is still a problem. Very occasionally, rod-type lines with one or a few hooks are used, but these have largely been replaced by other methods. Read more...

It's time, as usual, for our open thread. Talk about whatever you want, even if it's not naval/military related and isn't Culture War.

During the last virtual meetup, Trofim_Lysenko pointed me to this video, which is of a presentation by a senior Navy acquisition officer analyzing the Death Star program from an acquisition point of view. Highly recommended.

2018 overhauls are Bringing Back the Battleships, Why the Carriers Aren't Doomed Parts two and three, Stability, Pre-Dreadnoughts and Basics of Naval Strategy. Overhauled from 2019 were Interwar Naval Diplomacy, Commercial Aviation Part 5, Falklands Part 10, the Spanish-American War Part 1, The NOAA Commissioned Corps and Ship Structure and Strength. And 2020 overhauls are Aerial Decoys, Pictures-Iowa Enlisted Quarters, Escorts and Cool Facilities-Bayview.

Since the 1940s, engineers have invented many ways to guide weapons to their targets. The technical details of all these methods would undoubtedly fill a book (or many books), but a basic understanding of them is helpful to make sense of the tangle that is the history of guided missiles. We can broadly break them down into two types: target-based and location-based. Target-based guidance systems try to steer to a specific thing, be that a ship, an airplane, or a building, while location-based systems are going to a specific place. Another important axis is how much help the guidance system needs from outside. Some weapons are fire-and-forget, just needing to be pointed and told to get on with it, while others require more or less involvement by someone outside to get where they need to go.

An Atlas ICBM

We'll get location-based systems out of the way first. Traditionally, these were the preserve of strategic weapons like ICBMs and long-range cruise missiles, fired at targets over the horizon. The simplest system of this type is inertial guidance, which sums up all of the acceleration the weapon has done from a known starting point to figure out where it is and what it needs to do to reach the target. The problem is that any errors in measuring acceleration build up, and need to be corrected if you want to hit a target with a conventional warhead. At first, the corrections were radioed by an outside observer, but later systems were developed to allow autonomous operation, at first by using star sightings and later by matching against the terrain below the missile or looking at surrounding landmarks. Today, location-based guidance is ubiquitous thanks to GPS, which allows weapons like JDAM to hit precise targets with little outside support.¹ The only real drawback is that you need to know exactly where the target is. That's impossible if the target is moving, which covers a significant fraction of things we might want to blow up.² Read more...

Whales have been hunted for thousands of years, and indigenous people still hunt them today from small boats, seeking meat and other products. But deep-sea whaling didn't become a major industry until the 17th century, and the main objective was not meat. It was instead whale oil, extracted from blubber, and baleen, the strainers that many whales use to filter their food out of the ocean.³

Whaling ship Charles W. Morgan, the oldest merchant ship afloat, at Mystic Seaport

Demand for both products ballooned in the late 18th and early 19th century. Whale oil was the best fuel for new, brighter oil lamps, and also a vital lubricant for the developing industrial revolution, while baleen was used anywhere where a combination of strength and flexibility was required, ranging from buggy whips to corset stays. Whale stocks in the North Atlantic quickly collapsed, and whalers had to venture further and further in search of their prey, often to the remote corners of the Pacific or the Southern Ocean. This trade was initially dominated by Americans from New England, with a high proportion concentrated in Nantucket, Massachusetts. Read more...

Gentlemen,

It has been an exciting year, with several new technologies arriving. Our biggest focus has been on resolving the fuel crisis, and as such, we've improved general fuel economy, increased engine size, and decreased power multiplier. The end result is that our latest commercial engine uses only 42% as much fuel per unit power as the one in our current transports. This, when combined with our increased fuel production, should let us supply a new colony relatively easily. We've also finished the jump gain chain to Gliese 892, so it's probably time to look at new transports.

The other major development is major improvements in our research, as our scientists have gotten better and allowed us to allocate labs more efficiently. This has paid major dividends, particularly in Construction and Production research. We also suspect we've found another civilization in the Gliese 785 system. Unfortunately, we have no direct contact, but there's a habitable planet in the system and we've discovered jump gates leading from it, so the conclusion isn't hard to reach.

Database is here.

The history of naval aviation is often told as the history of the aircraft carrier and its planes. But naval aviation is a broader topic, and focusing on even the most important element gives an incomplete picture. I've talked about this some, with my look at aircraft operations from battleships, but it's time to turn our attention to one of the less successful and less explored aspects of the field, the use of lighter-than-air craft to support operations at sea.⁴

Raddampfer (sidewheel steamer) Vulcano

The first known use of lighter-than-air devices at sea dates back to 1849. Austria was attempting to put down a revolt by the Venetians, and someone came up with the idea of using hot-air balloons to carry explosive charges over the city. Timers would drop the explosives, hopefully persuading the inhabitants to come to terms. The plan, carried out from the deck of the steamer Vulcano, failed when the wind turned contrary and the balloons were blown back over the ship. Obviously, the experiment was not repeated. Read more...

In 1865, the US Navy was the second-largest in the world, and a close rival to Great Britain's. It had chased Confederate commerce raiders and enforced the blockade that had strangled the South. It had fought the world's first battle between ironclads, and perfected the art of coastal attack. But in the aftermath of the war, it all came crashing down. Raiders had driven American merchant ships to foreign flags, and the government prevented them from returning postwar. Railroads opened the west, and the US turned its attention from the sea to the inland frontier. Robbed of its public support, economy was the order of the day and the Navy shrank drastically, falling from 671 ships in 1865 to only 238 in 1867. Even those that were retained were in poor repair, and many sailors on foreign stations (greatly reduced thanks to the absence of merchantmen in need of protection) wrote about their embarrassment next to freshly-painted foreign warships.

The US European Squadron, 1872

Making matters worse, much of the Navy's leadership was ineffective or downright reactionary. David Porter, a Civil War naval hero, was promoted to Admiral and effectively dominated a series of weak Secretaries of the Navy, including one who was surprised to find that ships were hollow on his first visit. He emphasized sail, threatening to take the cost of any unnecessary coal used out of the Captain's pocket. Occasional war scares with various countries, such as the Virginius Affair of 1873, emphasized the Navy's weakness, but any appetite for new ships died with the crisis that spawned it. Read more...